Fact sheet: Biodegradation—Sediments

On this page

• Description
• Implementation of the technology
• Recommended analyses for detailed characterization
• Recommended trials for detailed characterization
• Other information recommended for detailed characterization
• Applications
• Applications to sites in northern regions
• Treatment type
• State of technology
• Target contaminants
• Treatment time
• Long-term considerations (following remediation work)
• Secondary by-products and/or metabolites
• Limitations and Undesirable Effects of the Technology
• Complementary technologies that improve treatment effectiveness
• Required secondary treatments
• Application examples
• Performance
• Measures to improve sustainability or promote ecological remediation
• Potential impacts of the application of the technology on human health
• References
• Author and update

Description

Biodegradation is a process by which organic contaminants in solid or liquid matrices are transformed by microorganisms to produce cell material, energy, organic compounds (generally less toxic than the parent compounds), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and water. Under favourable conditions, microorganisms can degrade a wide variety of organic compounds.

Generally, two methods are used to promote the biological treatment of impacted sediments: biostimulation and bioaugmentation.

• Biostimulation is the introduction of additives (amendments) into sediments to stimulate the indigenous microorganisms and accelerate the biodegradation of specific contaminants (for instance, through nutrient addition). Biostimulation can occur in both aerobic and anaerobic environments, provided the necessities are available for microbial life. The preferred environmental conditions depend on the contaminants’ biodegradation potential, biostimulants and nutrients access, and site conditions (geochemistry).
• Bioaugmentation involves introducing, directly on or into contaminated sediments, cultured microorganisms with specific catabolic abilities to degrade and transform specific contaminants. This procedure enables or accelerates the biodegradation of target contaminants. The key factor in the success of bioaugmentation is selecting the appropriate bacterial strain. This selection must be made taking into account not only the ability of the strain to degrade the contaminants of concern but also the ability of the strain to survive within the environmental conditions of the new habitat (such as, pH, salinity, redox potential). This technology is still experimental, and there are significant challenges in applying it to underwater environments on a large-scale basis. In Canada, injecting microorganisms into the environment must follow the 1999 Canadian Environmental Protection Act, part 6. Allogenic microorganisms must be registered on the Domestic Substance List in order to be considered for the bioaugmentation remediation technique.

Internet links:

• U.S. EPA. 1993 Guide for Conducting Treatability Studies under CERCLA: Biodegradation Remedy Selection.
• ITRC. 2014. Contaminated Sediments Remediation: Remedy Selection for Contaminated Sites.

Implementation of the technology

Implementation of biodegradation may include:

• Mobilization, site access and installation of temporary facilities.
• Capture and relocation of aquatic organisms and fauna, if possible, located in the rehabilitation area. See activities involving species at risk.
• Identify the native microorganisms present at the site as well as their ability to degrade the contaminants of concern:
  • If native organisms can optimize the biodegradation rate, biostimulation may be an effective treatment option.
  • When native organisms cannot biodegrade the contaminants, yet the site provides all conditions necessary for microbial survival (such as, pH, salinity, redox potential), bioaugmentation may be an effective treatment option.
• Conduct a detailed analysis of site conditions, including characterization of the microbial and existing environmental conditions, such as temperature, pH, available nutrients, and dissolved oxygen content.
• Determine if alterations to the site may improve microbial performance without detrimentally affecting native benthic organisms. If alterations are feasible and will not negatively affect the benthic community (or if the negative effects are easily mitigated), the biodegradation pathway may be a viable option.
• Institutional control measures.

Implementation of biodegradation using the biostimulation method may include:

• Using knowledge of the existing microbial community and environmental conditions at the site, determine the deficiencies in site conditions and the optimal biodegradation pathway for optimal microbial performance.
• Identify the optimal bacterial strain and obtain any amendments (such as, nutrients) necessary to improve microbial performance (such as, the biodegradation rate of target contaminants and the growth rate of the microbial population).
• Conduct on-site pilot-scale testing with a variety of amendment doses (and/or different amendment types) to develop an accurate estimation of required amendment quantities, application techniques, and remediation timelines capable of meeting remediation objectives.
• Apply amendments according to pilot-scale testing results, on site conditions and phases of amendment (that is solid, liquid, or gas). The application may take the following forms:
  • Amendments may be placed on the water surface (similar to the application of a sand cap, detailed in the Capping fact sheet) and allowed to sink to the sediment surface. A mechanical bucket may be used for solid amendments and a liquid sprayer may be used for liquid amendments.
  • Deposit amendments below the water surface, directly above sediments. This will reduce resuspension and loss of amendment due to flow within the waterbody and improve the accuracy of amendment applications for sediments at significant depths. Application may be conducted using a mechanical bucket for solid amendments or a hydraulic pump for liquid amendments.
  • Inject amendments directly into sediments to reduce occurrences of resuspension and loss of amendment due to flow within the waterbody. Direct injection allows for effective treatment of subsurface contamination and targeted “hot spots” (such as, discrete location of high contamination) treatment.
• Monitor amendment dispersion to ensure sufficient application in the contaminated area.
• Implement a long-term monitoring plan to ensure the site moves toward remediation goals over time.

Implementation of biodegradation using the bioaugmentation method may include:

• Determine the potential microorganism(s) capable of biologically degrading the target contaminant, along with the environmental necessities to optimize microbial performance.
• Select and obtain the bacterial strain that is both capable of biodegrading the contaminant of concern and surviving in the existing site environment.
• Conduct on-site pilot tests with a variety of bacterial doses, to determine the optimal concentration and application technique to optimize the implantation, the survival of new strains and the biodegradation rates.
• Apply bacteria colonies to contaminated sediments based on the optimal mode derived from the pilot test. As the effectiveness of bioaugmentation has not been conclusively demonstrated for sediments, application techniques have yet to be developed for this remediation method.
• Monitor bacterial dispersion during application to ensure sufficient coverage of the contaminated area.
• Implement a long-term monitoring plan to ensure the site is moving toward remediation goals. If monitoring results indicate that remediation goals are not being met, it may be necessary to reapply bacterial colonies or move to biostimulation techniques.

Site activities may require institutional controls or on-site restrictions used during the remediation phase to prevent exposure to buried contaminants.

Materials and Storage

On-site storage may include fuels, lubricants, amendments, and other site materials required for operating the machinery and equipment for the implementation of the technology.

Amendments used in biodegradation vary greatly, depending on the site conditions and needs. When biostimulation is used, amendments may include oxidizers, such as hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate, and sodium nitrate; nutrient fertilizers, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic fertilizers; and products affecting the ionic balance, such as sodium chloride.

Bioaugmentation materials include biodegraders and bacterial culture, such as KB-1, whereas inhibitors may consist of chemical or biological surfactants or dispersants, such as Triton X-100, bile salts, surfactin, sodium taurocholate, rhamnolipid, and sophorolipid.

Waste and Discharge

Biodegradation in sediment risks the loss of contaminants and/or amendments to suspension into the water column. Sediment contamination may be released when the waterbody is agitated, for example, by extreme weather events (such as, flooding) or through human activities (such as, construction, marine activities, etc.). Loss of amendments may be mitigated through application techniques, such as applications during periods of low energy (such as, no current and wave action) and injection into sediments. Amendment application plans should be evaluated for their suspension potential, and preference should be given to products and/or techniques with little potential for loss into the water column. Sediment traps may be installed when contaminant or amendment loss is expected to capture the fraction lost to suspension.

Materials and amendments should be safely stored to prevent accidental spills from contacting the waterbody or seeping into the groundwater. As a precautionary measure, the site should be equipped with spill kits and sorbent pads. Excess amendments may be returned to the supplier or disp

Recommended analyses for detailed characterization

Recommended trials for detailed characterization

Other information recommended for detailed characterization

Applications

Biodegradation is one of the most sustainable in situ technologies, with fewer environmental impacts than more invasive remediation options such as dredging or excavation.

Biodegradation techniques are highly site-dependent, and the choice to use this technique requires consideration of contaminant type, sediment characteristics (grain size, permeability, etc.), natural environmental conditions (anaerobic or aerobic conditions, pH, salinity, etc.), site access and location.

The technology has the greatest potential for success in stable contaminated sediments with low erosion rates, high shear strength, and good slope stability to support the application of amendments. Biodegradation is most easily applied to sites where the sediment surface is 15 metres or less underwater, with relatively uniform surface contamination. If the contaminants are below the sediment surface, the depth of contamination must be shallow enough to allow mechanical mixing of the amendments from the surface or within the bioturbation zone (mixing of sediments by benthic organisms at the sediment-water interface). Sites with a healthy benthic and microbial community are more suitable for biodegradation. Benthic organisms should include those capable of bioturbation and naturally mixing with sediment amendments.

Biodegradation may occur under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Aerobic conditions are favorable to the biodegradation processes of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (especially low-molecular-weight PAHs), PCBs and certain chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons (HACs) (chloroethene among others). If oxygen levels do not renew themselves enough, as is often the case in sediments, the rapid decline in dissolved oxygen concentrations due to microbial respiration creates anaerobic conditions. In such cases, anaerobic microorganisms may use electron acceptors other than oxygen, such as nitrates, sulphates, manganese (Mn) (IV), iron (Fe) (III) or CO2 to support contaminant mineralization reactions. Complex chlorinated compounds (such as perchloroethylene or trichloroethylene) are easier to biodegrade under anaerobic conditions. PHCs, light PAHs and PCBs, as well as HACs can be degraded under anaerobic conditions when electron acceptors, other than oxygen, are available to the microorganisms.

It is also possible to use biodegradation as a secondary treatment to degrade residual contaminants remaining in sediments following the use of another remediation method.

Applications to sites in northern regions

• This management approach can be used in remote locations without services or electricity.
• The technology is applicable in northern environments, but remote sites have greater logistical challenges associated with mobilization, resulting in higher costs. In addition, equipment availability is limited and the seasonal windows to conduct work are short.
• Transporting amendments to the site is often very costly or impossible in remote and northern regions.
• Arctic environments may require the assistance of an icebreaker, as well as monitoring and reporting of ice conditions, which considerably amplifies operational costs and organizational requirements.
• Cold climates generally have a negative impact on contaminant biodegradation processes—the half-life of contaminants will be longer than in temperate climates.
• Monitoring and testing are limited by timely access to certified laboratories, and often necessitate the development of on-site testing and analysis of materials, the implementation of progressive interventions and/or implementation of a risk-based management approach.
• Cold weather can impact reactions to amendments. Reaction time or treatment efficiency could be compromised.
• The technology may require the placement of restrictions or limitations on the human consumption of native organisms when contaminated sediments are present. Because local people may rely on aquatic species as important sources of food, these restrictions may significantly impact communities.
• Shallow coastal areas in northern environments are also commonly affected by ice scouring from icebergs and sea ice, which is a limitation for the feasibility of this technology. The effects of climate change are of particular importance for the long-term management of biodegradation on northern sites, as conceptual conditions are likely to be altered, influencing the lifespan of biodegradation.
• Among the biodegradation techniques that have been applied in northern environments are the following:
  • Microbial degradation of low-temperature PHCs in low-temperature deep-sea subarctic sediments (Ferguson et al. 2017). Hydrocarbon-contaminated samples were incubated with bacterial enrichment at 0 °C and 5 °C. Samples at 5 °C showed 65–89% degradation of compounds after 50 days, compared with 0–47% at 0 °C.
  • Increased salinity on crude oil degradation (Sharma and Schiewer 2016). This study found that increased salinity positively impacted crude oil degradation in sediments due to the enhanced formation of oil-mineral aggregates.
  • Modified biodegraders (Roberg et al. 2007), where the researchers utilized a modified cold-climate version of the well-known biodegradation agent Inipol EAP 22 to increase hydrocarbon degrader counts and thus the rate of hydrocarbon removal from the Arctic intertidal sediments.
  • Oil biodegradation on an Arctic coastline (Prince 2003). The application of slow-release soluble fertilizers effectively stimulated oil biodegradation by delivering nutrients to surface-contaminated sediments. The biodegradation rate doubled in one year, thanks to the application of fertilizers in the first two months following the oil spill.
  • Biodegradation of crude oil in sub-Antarctic intertidal sediments (Delille et al. 2002). A field study was launched in 1996 on an isolated sandy beach to assess the effectiveness of bioremediation agents and the biodegradation rate under harsh sub-Antarctic conditions, using 10 in situ experimental plots containing 2 liters of light crude oil sampled over 3 years. Microbial response was rapid and effective despite climatic conditions, biodegradation rates were enhanced in the presence of bioremediation amendments, and residue toxicity proved high.
  • Enhanced biodegradation (Horowitz and Atlas 1977), where a natural shift in microbial populations toward leaded-gasoline-tolerant microorganisms was observed after a fuel spill in a freshwater lake. Biodegradation was enhanced by adding nutrients and bacterial inoculation, significantly reducing residual hydrocarbons.

Treatment type

State of technology

Target contaminants

Treatment time

Notes:

Biodegradation techniques are still in the experimental phase for certain contaminants or specific environments. These are the subject of ongoing studies and are covered in the scientific literature.

Treatment times can vary from one to several years, depending on the type of contaminant, its concentration/mass, contaminant bioavailability, site conditions, amendments and the distribution technique used. After initial treatment, regular monitoring must demonstrate that contaminant levels are trending toward remediation objectives over time. Additional amendment applications may be necessary.

Long-term considerations (following remediation work)

Generally, biodegradation treatments are permanent if they completely destroy contaminants. If biodegradation meets remediation objectives, there will be little or no long-term considerations.

However, remediation targets can be reached over a long period of time, so it’s important to put in place a long-term monitoring plan. This plan should include monitoring parameters to quantify microbial activity and the availability of environmental factors (such as, oxygen, nutrients) required for optimal microbial growth. As a result, it may be necessary to make repeated applications of amendments to maintain the microbial activity required to achieve the remediation objectives. Surface water quality monitoring may be required to ensure that contaminants (and/or their degradation intermediates) are not transferred downstream of the treatment zone. In addition, an assessment of the integrity of the treatment zone and the maintenance of its geotechnical properties over time may be required. The monitoring plan may include monitoring gaseous emissions, if required, depending on the type of amendment used and the nature of the contamination. Monitoring should be performed on a regular, pre-established schedule, including the need for additional monitoring following significant meteorological events, such as flooding.

Secondary by-products and/or metabolites

In most cases, biodegradation by-products are water, carbon dioxide and, in the case of chlorinated compounds, inorganic chlorine. However, in cases where bacterial catabolic activities are not present, incomplete degradation of the target molecule may occur. For example, the incomplete biodegradation of some PCBs (dihydrodiols and dihydroxybiphenyls) may lead to breakdown products that are significantly higher in toxicity to bacteria, even in short incubation periods. Trichloroethylene (TCE) and perchloroethylene (PCE) can lead to the production of dichloroethylene (DCE), and the incomplete biodegradation of DCE can lead to vinyl chloride (VC) production, which is more toxic than the parent compounds. Its accumulation in the environment can lead to greater toxicity for the ecological and human receptors.

The addition of amendments and increased biological activity may lead to a change in the geochemical conditions within sediments, such as a change in pH. These changes may increase bioavailability and mobilization for certain metals and other contaminants.

Surfactants may increase contaminant solubility, making them more available for microbial adsorption. In this case, precautions must be taken when using surfactants to ensure that they do not inhibit biodegradation, which can occur if the surfactant is toxic to the native bacteria or if there is competition for substrate utilization (Liu et al. 2001).

Limitations and Undesirable Effects of the Technology

• Biodegradation is not appropriate in the following situations:
  • Contaminants with no biodegradation potential under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
  • Highly mobile target contaminants.
  • Inorganic contaminants such as metals or free-phase contamination.
  • High wave action and water energy.
  • Sites with high erosion rate and low shear strength (sediments must be able to withstand a displacement anomaly).
  • Water depths greater than 15 metres, as for other in situ treatments (see Capping fact sheet).
  • Sites where marine and coastal infrastructure makes access to sediments difficult and prevents optimal distribution of nutrients, microorganisms or other amendments.
  • Presence of Unexploded Explosive Ordnances (UXOs), which poses a risk of unintentional detonation.

• Biodegradation is challenging under the following conditions:
  • Sites where contamination is not uniform, where there are distinct locations with high contamination levels. The presence of concentrated source areas may affect the application of this technology.
  • Contamination deep in sediments and at a great distance from the shore.
  • Contamination with pyrogenic PAHs (derived from incomplete combustion), which are more difficult to biodegrade than petrogenic PAHs (derived from crude oil and its refined products) (Lei 2005).
  • Behavior of complex microorganisms with regard to the level and rate of biodegradation achievable for contaminants. For example, the biodegradation rate of PCBs may be slower by a factor of several orders of magnitude in situ than in the laboratory due to the lack of one or more essential nutrients, the preferential metabolism of other substrates that degrade more readily, or the presence of microbial predators or toxins (Agarwal et al. 2007).
  • Limited number of large-scale bioaugmentation projects completed, which may limit public acceptance.
  • Successive and multiple applications are required.

• Biodegradation can have the following adverse effects:
  • Degradation by-products are sometimes more harmful and toxic than the original compounds.
  • Contamination plume migration (sediment transport) during treatment.
  • Transfer of contaminants to water caused by future site activities (such as, construction) or extreme weather events (such as, flooding).
  • Altered geochemical conditions leading to increased bioavailability and mobilization of certain metals, increasing the direct toxicity of sediments.
  • Reduced shear strength and stability of sediments due to the injection of amendments into sediments, limiting future uses of the site.

Complementary technologies that improve treatment effectiveness

Biodegradation can be used in combination with other in situ techniques to reduce contaminant availability further:

• Dredging
• Excavation
• Capping (amendments can be incorporated into capping designs to stimulate biodegradation)

A study showed that combining biodegradation techniques with an electrokinetic process enabled better bioavailability and, thus, removal of phthalic esters from river sediments (Yang et al. 2015).

Required secondary treatments

If the target contaminant concentrations are reached, no secondary treatment is required. However, the volatile compounds or biogas produced during biodegradation may need to be captured and treated.

Application examples

Application examples are available at these links:

• Fragkou, E et al. 2021. In Situ Aerobic Bioremediation of Sediments Polluted with Petroleum Hydrocarbons: A Critical Review. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering.
• Wu, N. et al. 2020. Field study of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbon degradation in contaminated groundwater via micron zero-valent iron coupled with biostimulation. Chemical Engineering Journal. 384 :123349.
• Jing, R., Fusi, S., Kjellerup, B.V. 2018. Remediation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in Contaminated Soils and Sediment: State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Sec. Environmental Toxicology. 6.
• Yang, G.C. et al. 2015. Remediation of phthalates in river sediment by integrated enhanced bioremediation and electrokinetic process. Chemosphere. 150. 9 p.
• Iverson, A., Sharma, P. and Schiewer, S. 2015. Biodegradation and Transport of Crude Oil in Sand and Gravel Beaches of Arctic Alaska. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Coastal Marine Institute. 63 p.
• Lei, L., et al. 2005. Biodegradation of Sediment-Bound PAHs in Field-Contaminated Sediment. Water Res. 39 :349–361.
• Travis, B. J., Rosenberg, N.D. 1997. Modeling in Situ Bioremediation of TCE at Savannah River: Effects of Product Toxicity and Microbial Interactions of TCE Degradation. Environmental Science & Technology. 31 (11): 3093–3102.
• Murphy, T., Moller, A. and Brouwer. H. 1995. In situ Treatment of Hamilton Harbour Sediment. J. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health. 4(1): 195–203.
• The New York Times. 1991. Experimental Cleaning of Hudson is Under Way.

Performance

The performance of biodegradation systems in sediments, reported in the literature during pilot-scale testing or remediation projects, can achieve up to a 90% reduction in sulphide concentrations and a 50% to 80% reduction in concentrations of PAHs, PHCs, and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX). Dechlorination of PCBs or halogenated hydrocarbons in the laboratory has demonstrated that it is possible to eliminate most of the contamination. It is important to note that achieving this level of biodegradation in situ is highly unlikely due to the intrinsic heterogeneity of sediments and the difficulty in controlling all parameters, as can be done in the laboratory. The effectiveness of in situ biodegradation is limited by some of the factors discussed in the section on technology limitations. However, results obtained in the laboratory demonstrate the potential of the technology, which can be exploited in the future, thanks to a better understanding and control of the processes involved.

Measures to improve sustainability or promote ecological remediation

• Using renewable energy and energy-efficient equipment for technology implementation.
• Reducing fuel consumption (and using renewable energy where available) for vehicles and heavy machinery.
• Optimizing the scheduling to promote resource sharing and reduce the number of mobilization days.
• Capturing and relocating the species at risk and sensitive habitats likely to be affected by the remediation work.
• Working during periods of low risk to fish and fish habitat.
• Identifying site-specific regulatory resources (for example, fishing licences), sensitivities, and appropriate avoidance/mitigation measures.
• Selecting local services and providers.
• Using telemetry for remote monitoring reduces the number of field visits.
• Reviewing historical data and optimizing the monitoring program to reduce the required samples and sampling effort.

Potential impacts of the application of the technology on human health

Potential Human Health Impacts

The minor and major potential human health exposure pathways are presented in the following table.

Potential Aquatic Impacts

Biodegradation treatments may change geochemical conditions, which can affect both target and non-target contaminants. When the amendments are placed, the topmost layer of sediments is covered. This coverage may alter access to benthic habitats and the food supply and may result in the mortality of some organisms. Some amendments may become suspended within the water column, altering the chemical properties of the water and becoming susceptible to uptake by aquatic microorganisms.

References

• Agarwal, S., Al-Abed, S.R., and Dionysiou, D.D. 2007. In situ Technologies for Reclamation of Contaminated Sediments-PCBs: Current Challenges and Research Thrust Areas. J. Environ. Eng. 133 :1075–1078.
• Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEC). 2004. Principles and Practices of Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents. AFCEC, Brooks City-Base, Texas. 457 p. (PDF)
• Delille, D., Delille, B., & Pelletier, E. 2002. Effectiveness of Bioremediation of Crude Oil Contaminated Subantarctic Intertidal Sediment: The Microbial Response. Microb Ecol. 44:118–126.
• Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). 2005. Bioaugmentation for Remediation of Chlorinated Solvents: Technology Development, Status, and Research Needs. 111 p. (PDF)
• Ferguson, R. M. W., Gontikaki, E., Anderson, J. A. & Witte, U. 2017. The Variable Influence of Dispersant on Degradation of Oil Hydrocarbons in Subarctic Deep-Sea Sediments at Low Temperatures (0–5?°C). Sci Rep 7, 2253
• Fragkou, E., Antoniou, E., Daliakopoulos, I., Manios, T., Theodorakopoulou, M. Kalogerakis, N. 2021. In Situ Aerobic Bioremediation of Sediments Polluted with Petroleum Hydrocarbons: A Critical Review. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering.
• Government of Canada. 1999. Canadian Environmental Protection Act.
• Hassan, A., Hamid, F.S., Pariatamby, A., Suhaimi, N.S.M., Razali, N.M.B.M., Ling, K.N.H. & Mohan, P. 2023. Bioaugmentation-assisted bioremediation and biodegradation mechanisms for PCB in contaminated environments: A review on sustainable clean-up technologies. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 11 (3): 110055.
• Horowitz, A. and Atlas, R.M. 1977. Response of microorganisms to an accidental gasoline spillage in an arctic freshwater ecosystem. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 33(6): 1252–1258.
• Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC). 2014. Contaminated sediments remediation: remedy selection for contaminated sediments (CS-2). Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, Contaminated Sediments Team. Washington, D.C. 525 p. (PDF)
• Iverson, A., Sharma, P. and Schiewer, S. 2015. Biodegradation and Transport of Crude Oil in Sand and Gravel Beaches of Arctic Alaska. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Coastal Marine Institute. 63 p.
• Jing, R., Fusi, S., Kjellerup, B.V. 2018. Remediation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in Contaminated Soils and Sediment: State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Sec. Environmental Toxicology. 6.
• Lei, L., Khodadoust, A.P., Suidan, M.T. and Tabak, H.H. 2005. Biodegradation of Sediment-Bound PAHs in Field-Contaminated Sediment. Water Res. 39 :349–361
• Liu, Y., Zhu, L. and Shen, X. 2001. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor and outdoor air of Hangzhou, China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35 :840–844.
• Mulligan, C.N., Fukue, M. and Sato, Y. 2009. Sediment contamination and sustainable remediation—Chapter 6: in situ Remediation of Contaminated Sediments and Management. CRC Press. 135–167. (PDF)
• Minister of Justice. Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999. (Act current to 2024-03-06). Government of Canada. (PDF)
• Murphy, T., Moller, A. and Brouwer. H. 1995. In situ Treatment of Hamilton Harbour Sediment. J. Aquat. Ecosyst. Health. 4(1): 195–203.
• Perelo, L.W. 2010. Review: in situ Bioremediation of Organic Pollutants and in Aquatic Sediments. J. Hazard. Mater. 177 :81–89.
• Prince, R.C., Bare, R.E., Garrett, R.M., Grossman, M., Haith, C.E., Keim, L.G., Lee, K., Holtom, G.J., Lambert, P., Sergy, G.A., Owens, E.H., Guénette, C.G. 2003. Bioremediation of Stranded Oil on an Arctic Shoreline. Spill Science & Technology Bulletin. 8 (3): 303–312.
• Renholds, J. 1998. In situ Treatment of Contaminated Sediments. National Network of Environmental Management Studies Fellow, Washington, D.C. 27 p. (PDF)
• Roberg, S., Stromo, S. K. and Landfald, B. 2007. Persistence and biodegradation of Kerosene in high-arctic intertidal sediment. Mar. Environ. Res. 64(4).
• Sharma, P., Schiewer, S. 2016. Assessment of crude oil biodegradation in arctic seashore sediments: effects of temperature, salinity, and crude oil concentration. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23(15).
• Sowers, K.R., May, H.D. 2013. In Situ treatment of PCBs by anaerobic microbial dichlorination in aquatic sediment: are we there yet?. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 24 (3): 482–488.
• The New York Times. 1991. Experimental Cleaning of Hudson is Under Way.
• Travis, B. J., Rosenberg, N.D. 1997. Modeling in Situ Bioremediation of TCE at Savannah River: Effects of Product Toxicity and Microbial Interactions of TCE Degradation. Environmental Science & Technology. 31 (11): 3093–3102.
• Ukiwe, L.N., Egereonu, U.U., Njoku, P.C., Nwoko, C.I.A. and Allinor, J.I. 2013. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons degradation techniques: A review. International Journal of Chemistry. 5(4): 43–55.
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), 1993. Guide for Conducting Treatability Studies Under CERCLA. Biodegradation Remedy Selection, Philadelphia, PA. 79 p. (PDF)
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), 1994. Assessment and remediation of Contaminant Sediments Program, remediation guidance document. EPA/905/R-94/003. Great Lakes National Program Office. October. (PDF)
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). 1996. Seminars—Bioremediation of Hazardous Waste Sites: Practical Approaches to Implementation. U.S. EPA. Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C., multiple pagination.
• Wu, N., Zhang, W., Wei, W., Yang, S., Wang, H., Sun, Z., Song, Y., Li, P.& Tang, Y. 2020. Field study of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbon degradation in contaminated groundwater via micron zero-valent iron coupled with biostimulation. Chemical Engineering Journal. 384 :123349.
• Yang, G. C., Huang, S.-C., Jen, Y.-S. and Tsai, P.-S. 2015. Remediation of phthalates in river sediment by integrated enhanced bioremediation and electrokinetic process. Chemosphere. 150. 9 p.

Author and update

Composed by : Bruno Vallée M.Sc, LVM Inc.

Updated by : Sharilyn Hoobin, M.Sc & Ashley Hosier, P.Eng., Royal Military College of Canada.

Updated Date : November 24, 2016

Latest update provided by : Juliette Primard, Frédéric Gagnon and Sylvain Hains. WSP Canada Inc.

Latest update date :March 31, 2024